research chemical is one of those subjects where the details matter more than the headlines. This page pulls together the background, the mechanisms, and the practical points readers ask about most.
Updated 2026-02-16. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
Sporting authorities added GW501516 to prohibited lists after it appeared in athlete samples and online markets. The World Anti-Doping Agency classifies it as a hormone and metabolic modulator, and its use can lead to an anti-doping rule violation. Some early laboratory work suggested effects on fatty acid oxidation and endurance-related metabolism in animals, but those findings do not establish safe or effective use in people. Reports of adverse events in humans are scarce and often anecdotal, which complicates risk assessment.
Legal status varies by country. In some places, cardarine is controlled under medicines or psychoactive substances laws; in others, it may be sold with minimal oversight as a research chemical. Customs agencies have intercepted shipments, and several national health agencies have issued warnings about products marketed for bodybuilding or performance enhancement. The lack of a standardized pharmaceutical supply means identity, purity, and contamination levels can differ widely between samples. These factors make cardarine a regulatory and public health concern rather than a conventional prescription drug.
Cardarine is a synthetic compound also known as GW501516, GW-501516, and sometimes endurobol. It was developed as a selective agonist of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, a nuclear receptor involved in fatty acid oxidation and energy metabolism. The compound was studied in preclinical models for metabolic and cardiovascular conditions, but it did not become a marketed human medicine. In regulatory and anti-doping contexts, it is treated as a prohibited substance rather than a licensed medicine.
The pharmacological interest in cardarine centers on PPARδ activation and its downstream effects on lipid handling and mitochondrial function. In animal studies, PPARδ agonists have been associated with changes in exercise endurance and fatty acid utilization, though results vary by model and protocol. Human data remain sparse, and the absence of large controlled trials limits conclusions about efficacy. Researchers often describe the compound as a tool for probing PPARδ biology rather than a proven therapeutic agent.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| IUPAC name | {4-[({4-methyl-2-[4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-1,3-thiazol-5-yl}methyl)sulfanyl]phenoxy}acetic acid | Systematic name for GW501516 |
| CAS Registry Number | 317318-70-0 | Unique identifier for the parent compound |
| Molecular formula | C21H18F3NO3S2 | Includes carbon, hydrogen, fluorine, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur |
| Molecular weight | 453.5 g/mol | Approximate value for the neutral form |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Typical description for purified laboratory material |
GW501516 binds and activates PPARδ, a nuclear receptor that influences transcription of genes involved in fatty acid oxidation and energy use. Activation shifts some metabolic pathways in preclinical models, which is why the compound has been studied for lipid disorders and exercise-related endpoints. The exact downstream effects in humans are incompletely mapped. PPARδ is expressed in many tissues, including skeletal muscle, liver, and adipose tissue, so broad activation may have varied consequences. Researchers continue to examine how selective or partial activation might alter the balance between benefits and risks.
Published human data are sparse and mostly come from early-phase trials. Those studies examined short-term changes in lipids, glucose, and exercise capacity, but they were not large enough to establish efficacy or long-term safety. Some animal experiments reported increased running endurance, yet such findings do not prove a performance benefit in people. Anti-doping laboratories detect GW501516 and its metabolites in urine or blood using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Detection windows depend on dose, sample type, and individual metabolism. The method is sensitive enough to identify trace residues in tested samples.
Laboratory handling focuses on identity, purity, and stability. Reference standards are typically stored cold and dry, protected from light, because solutions can degrade over time. Analytical checks may use high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection or mass spectrometry. Impurities and related substances can be separated chromatographically and compared with a known standard. Because cardarine is not an approved drug, compendial monographs are absent, and laboratories often rely on in-house methods. Reported purity varies among unregulated products and should not be assumed from a label.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, also GW-1516, a synthetic compound developed as a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta (PPARδ) agonist. It belongs to a class of agents that modulate gene transcription related to lipid and energy metabolism. The compound was studied in preclinical and early clinical research for metabolic and cardiovascular conditions, but it did not progress to approved therapeutic use. Its name appears in fitness and sports contexts despite not being approved as a drug.
PPARδ is a nuclear receptor that influences transcription of genes involved in fatty acid oxidation, lipid transport, and energy homeostasis. GW501516 binds and activates this receptor with high selectivity relative to PPARα and PPARγ in laboratory assays. Activation alters expression of target genes in skeletal muscle, liver, and adipose tissue in animal models. The exact clinical consequences of these changes in humans remain incompletely characterized, and observed effects in animals do not establish therapeutic benefit or safety.
GW501516 acts as a ligand for PPAR delta, a nuclear receptor that regulates transcription of genes involved in fatty acid oxidation and energy use. Activation of this receptor in skeletal muscle shifts metabolism toward fat burning in animal models. The compound does not burn fat directly; it changes gene expression over hours to days. Researchers study it to understand metabolic flexibility and exercise adaptation. Effects observed in rodents are not automatically expected in humans.
Preclinical research reported that GW501516 increased running endurance in mice and improved lipid profiles in some animal species. Early human trials explored effects on high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, triglycerides, and glucose handling, but the program was discontinued. Published human data are sparse and do not establish efficacy for any condition. Studies also examined PPAR delta in cancer biology, with conflicting findings across models. The relationship between receptor activation, tissue context, and disease risk remains an active area of investigation.
=== Oxygen compounds === Three americium oxides are known, with the oxidation states +2 (AmO), +3 (Am2O3) and +4 (AmO2). Americium(II) oxide was prepared in minute amounts and has not been characterized in detail. Americium(III) oxide is a red-brown solid with a melting point of 2205 °C. Americium(IV) oxide is the main form of solid americium which is used in nearly all its applications. As most other actinide dioxides, it is a black solid with a cubic (fluorite) crystal structure. The oxalate of americium(III), vacuum dried at room temperature, has the chemical formula Am2(C2O4)3·7H2O. Upon heating in vacuum, it loses water at 240 °C and starts decomposing into AmO2 at 300 °C, the decomposition completes at about 470 °C. The initial oxalate dissolves in nitric acid with the maximum solubility of 0.25 g/L.
=== Lack of efficacy === A 2022 meta-analysis by Leichsenring and others found that the treatment effects of psychotherapies and psychiatric drugs (i.e. "pharmacotherapies") is "limited", in spite of "half a century of research, thousands of RCTs and millions of invested funds". A 2012 review of meta-analyses found that psychiatric medications are about as effective as those used in general medicine. However, a 2023 umbrella review found that studies of mental health outcomes most often use symptom remission as the outcome of interest (36.9%) and recovery the least often (2.5%); further, the systematic reviews were often found to be of critically low quality (67.5%), individual studies at high risk of bias (98.8%), and analysis studies at high risk bias (97.7%).
By the time of the 2023 election, Peña was considered a conservative politician who opposes the legalization of abortion and same-sex marriage. In May 2017, however, he had stated that he was in favor of same-sex marriage, while saying in regards of abortion that he was open for it to "be discussed in a sincere environment and without prejudice". He reversed position shortly afterwards following criticism from conservative sectors. During his 2023 campaign, he promised to create 500,000 jobs. He also ruled out raising taxes. On foreign policy, Peña pledged to maintain Paraguay's diplomatic relations with the Republic of China (Taiwan). In May 2023, Peña announced that he intended to move the Paraguayan embassy in Israel from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem after being sworn in as president; a move that was previously made by Horacio Cartes in 2018, but reversed by Mario Abdo Benítez later that year. Peña eventually attended the inauguration of said embassy in December 2024. Peña and his government expressed vocal support for Israel during the Gaza war and the Twelve-Day War, with Paraguay siding with Israel during South Africa's genocide case against Israel. As president, Paraguay restored diplomatic relations with Venezuela in November 2023; relations were strained since 2019. Relations between the two nations were broken again in February 2025, however, after Peña recognized Edmundo González as the winner of the 2024 Venezuelan presidential election. On the 2026 United States intervention in Venezuela, Peña stated that "it can only bring good news".
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
congressman from New York George Izard* (1793), general, politician; second governor of the Territory of Arkansas James Parker (1793), U.S. congressman from New Jersey Peter A. Jay (1794), son of Chief Justice John Jay; member of New York State Assembly and Recorder of New York City Cyrus King (1794), U.S. congressman from Massachusetts John Ferguson (1795), mayor of New York City Daniel D. Tompkins (1795), vice president of the United States; governor of New York Rensselaer Westerlo (1795), U.S. congressman from New York Edward Philip Livingston (1796), member of the New York State Senate, great-great-grandfather of Eleanor Roosevelt Rudolph Bunner (1798), U.S. congressman from New York John M. Bowers (1800s), U.S. congressman from New York Gulian C. Verplanck (1801), U.S. congressman from New York and chairman of the United States House Committee on Ways and Means Gouverneur Kemble (1803), U.S. congressman from New York and founder of the West Point Foundry John L. Lawrence (1803), member of New York State Assembly and New York State Senate Alpheus Sherman (1803), member of New York State Senate James Alexander Hamilton (1805), son of Alexander Hamilton, soldier, acting United States secretary of state under president Andrew Jackson, and U.S. attorney for the Southern District of New York 1829–1834 Edmund H. Pendleton (1805), U.S. congressman from New York, great-nephew of Edmund Pendleton, first chief justice of Virginia Samuel B.
Medical laboratory assistants (MLAs) also known as clinical laboratory assistants (CLA) or clinical assistants (CA) prepare, and in some cases process samples within a pathology laboratory. They also utilise pre-analytical systems in order for biomedical scientists (BMS) or Medical Laboratory Scientific Officers to process the biochemical tests requested on the sample. The majority of an MLA's time is spent in processing specimens. As such, the MLA has to have excellent knowledge of their particular sample acceptance policy, whilst obeying the data protection act, patient confidentiality, COSHH and the Caldicott rules. Other duties an MLA may undertake include, setting up blood analyzers, running Quality Controls and manual controls prior to a BMS undertaking analysis on samples. Maintenance and decontamination is essential for the function of the machinery therefore MLAs carry out this role on a weekly or monthly basis. A typical method of sample acceptance (in a clinical chemistry lab) is as follows:
Brain natriuretic peptide (BNP), also known as B-type natriuretic peptide, is a peptide hormone secreted by cardiomyocytes in the heart ventricles in response to stretching caused by increased ventricular blood volume. BNP is one of the three natriuretic peptides, in addition to atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) and C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP). BNP was first discovered in porcine brain tissue in 1988, which led to its initial naming as "brain natriuretic peptide", although subsequent research revealed that BNP is primarily produced and secreted by the ventricular myocardium (heart muscle) in response to increased ventricular blood volume and stretching. To reflect its true source, BNP is now often referred to as "B-type natriuretic peptide" while retaining the same acronym. The 32-amino acid polypeptide BNP-32 is secreted attached to a 76–amino acid N-terminal fragment in the prohormone called NT-proBNP (BNPT), which is biologically inactive. Once released, BNP binds to and activates the atrial natriuretic factor receptor NPRA, and to a lesser extent NPRB, in a fashion similar to atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) but with 10-fold lower affinity. The biological half-life of BNP, however, is twice as long as that of ANP, and that of NT-proBNP is even longer, making these peptides better targets than ANP for diagnostic blood testing. The physiologic actions of BNP are similar to those of ANP and include decrease in systemic vascular resistance and central venous pressure as well as an increase in natriuresis.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Collaboration and faster advancements === Large-scale collaborations, such as those seen in the development of open-source frameworks like TensorFlow and PyTorch, have accelerated advancements in machine learning (ML) and deep learning. The open-source nature of these platforms also facilitates rapid iteration and improvement, as contributors from across the globe can propose modifications and enhancements to existing tools.
Due to PTT activity in hypoxic environments, it may be also used on more developed tumors than PDT. Low-temperature PTT (≤ 45 °C) for treatment of infections is also a possibility when combined with an antibiotic compound due to heat's proportionality with membrane permeability - a hotter environment causes heightened membrane permeability, which thus allows the drug into the cell. This would reduce/eliminate the impact on human cell viability, and aiding in antibiotic accumulation within the target cell may assist in restoring activity in antibiotics that pathogens had developed resistance to. PTT is typically seen to have improved antimicrobial and wound healing activity when combined with an additional mechanism of action through PDT or added antibiotic compounds in the application.
== Poor usage of Iran's agricultural land == Approximately one-third of Iran's total surface area consists of arable farmland; however, less than one-fourth of this—equivalent to about one-tenth of the total land area—is actively cultivated. This limited cultivation is due to poor soil quality and inadequate water distribution across many regions. Of the cultivated land, less than one-third benefits from irrigation, while most rely on dry farming techniques. The most fertile soils are found in the western and northwestern regions of the country.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
No. Major drug regulators have not approved GW501516 for treating any medical condition. Products sold as cardarine are typically unapproved research chemicals or supplements, so their contents and safety are not assured.
It is prohibited by the World Anti-Doping Agency as a hormone and metabolic modulator. Athletes who test positive for GW501516 can face sanctions, including suspensions and loss of results.
Cardarine is a common or trade-style name, while GW501516 is the research code for the same chemical entity. Some sources also use Endurobol or GSK-516. The names refer to the same compound, not distinct drugs.
Cardarine is an investigational synthetic compound that acts as a PPARδ agonist. It is also known as GW501516 and has been studied mainly in preclinical research. It is not an approved medicine.