The short version of PPAR delta fits in a sentence. The long version — which is the one that helps — is below.
This page was last updated on 2026-05-02 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
Safety concerns emerged from long-term animal studies. In rodents given the compound for extended periods, researchers found an increased incidence of certain cancers, including liver and bladder tumors. These findings contributed to the discontinuation of clinical development. Whether similar risks apply to short-term or low-level exposure in humans is not established, and controlled human safety data are limited. The relevance of high-dose rodent carcinogenicity findings to human use remains a subject of debate.
Human trials of GW501516 were small and short in duration. They examined lipid levels, glucose handling, and other metabolic markers, but the programs were halted after the animal cancer findings. No approved therapeutic product exists, and published human data are insufficient for establishing long-term safety. Reports of use for athletic performance come mainly from non-clinical settings and cannot be verified through controlled trials. Independent testing of products sold as cardarine has found inconsistent purity and labeling.
Laboratory studies indicate that GW501516 activates PPARδ, a nuclear receptor involved in fatty acid oxidation and energy metabolism. In rodent experiments, treated animals often showed increased endurance and reduced fat mass. These effects were observed under controlled conditions and do not establish safe or effective use in humans. The exact dose-response relationship in humans remains poorly characterized. Species differences in metabolism can affect how results translate across animals and people.
Cardarine has no approved therapeutic indication and is not marketed as a medicine. The World Anti-Doping Agency lists GW501516 as a prohibited substance at all times, covering both in-competition and out-of-competition periods. National laws vary: some countries treat it as an unapproved drug subject to import controls, while others have specific restrictions on sale for human consumption. It is often sold as a research chemical, a label that does not imply safety or legality. Enforcement actions have targeted online vendors and shipments.
Anti-doping laboratories identify GW501516 and related metabolites using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Urine is the most common matrix, though blood and dried blood spots may also be analyzed. The method targets the parent compound and phase I and phase II metabolites, which extend the detection window. Because the substance is prohibited at all times, athletes can be tested outside competition. Detection limits and windows depend on the assay, sample type, and individual metabolism.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Primary target | PPARδ (NR1C2) | Nuclear receptor involved in lipid metabolism |
| Preclinical effect | Increased fatty acid oxidation | Observed in rodent studies |
| Key safety signal | Tumors in rodents after long-term exposure | Contributed to halted clinical development |
| Human trial status | No approved product; development stopped | Limited short-term metabolic data |
| Sport regulatory status | Prohibited at all times | WADA hormone and metabolic modulators class |
At the molecular level, GW501516 binds and activates PPARδ, a nuclear receptor that regulates transcription. Activation shifts expression of genes involved in fatty acid oxidation, energy expenditure, and lipid transport in skeletal muscle and liver. Animal studies report increased endurance and altered lipid profiles after exposure. Human data are limited to small trials and do not establish long-term safety or efficacy. PPARδ also has roles in cell proliferation, so the relationship between activation and cancer risk remains an open question.
Published literature on cardarine includes in vitro assays, rodent experiments, and a small number of human studies. Reports describe effects on exercise capacity and lipid metabolism in animals, while human evidence is sparse. Many online descriptions present the compound as a proven endurance aid, a claim not supported by regulatory approval or large clinical trials. Analytical studies focus on identifying the parent compound and its metabolites in biological samples. Important uncertainties include species differences, dose-response relationships, and the relevance of rodent tumor findings to humans.
Cardarine is the common name for GW501516, a synthetic compound studied as a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta agonist. Researchers developed it to explore treatments for lipid disorders and metabolic conditions. It is not an approved medicine in any country. Early clinical work examined changes in HDL cholesterol and triglycerides, but development was discontinued after animal studies raised concerns about cancer. The compound remains available as a research chemical and appears in discussions of performance enhancement.
GW501516 acts as a ligand for PPAR delta, a nuclear receptor that regulates transcription of genes involved in fatty acid oxidation and energy use. Activation of this receptor in skeletal muscle shifts metabolism toward fat burning in animal models. The compound does not burn fat directly; it changes gene expression over hours to days. Researchers study it to understand metabolic flexibility and exercise adaptation. Effects observed in rodents are not automatically expected in humans.
Preclinical research reported that GW501516 increased running endurance in mice and improved lipid profiles in some animal species. Early human trials explored effects on high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, triglycerides, and glucose handling, but the program was discontinued. Published human data are sparse and do not establish efficacy for any condition. Studies also examined PPAR delta in cancer biology, with conflicting findings across models. The relationship between receptor activation, tissue context, and disease risk remains an active area of investigation.
Anti-doping laboratories identify GW501516 and its metabolites using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Urine is the usual matrix, and detection can occur after the parent compound has cleared from blood. The exact detection window depends on dose, formulation, individual metabolism, and assay sensitivity. Because the compound is prohibited at all times, athletes are subject to testing in and out of competition. Analytical methods continue to improve as new metabolites and designer analogs are characterized.
Analytical laboratories typically identify cardarine and its metabolites using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Urine is a common matrix in anti-doping testing, while blood and tissue may be used in research settings. Detection windows depend on the assay, the sample matrix, and the compound's metabolism. Because cardarine is extensively metabolized, laboratories often target specific metabolites to improve sensitivity and confirmation. Reference standards are required for reliable quantification. Method validation includes checks for selectivity, linearity, and carryover.
A persistent misconception is that cardarine is a fat-burning drug or a safe alternative to anabolic steroids. No approved therapeutic product exists, and human safety data are limited. The tumor findings in rodents remain a central concern in scientific reviews. Products sold online may contain inaccurate labels, impurities, or different compounds entirely, which complicates any assessment of effects. Independent testing of such products has reported frequent mislabeling. For these reasons, discussions in the literature emphasize risks and unknowns rather than benefits.
Cardarine is not approved for human therapeutic use in any major jurisdiction. It appears on the World Anti-Doping Agency Prohibited List as a PPARδ agonist within the hormone and metabolic modulators category. Sports organizations test for it because it has been detected in athlete samples and seized products. Regulatory actions against marketed research chemical versions have occurred in several countries, though enforcement varies. Availability through unregulated channels complicates oversight.
Safety discussions about cardarine frequently cite rodent carcinogenicity findings reported in the 2000s. In those studies, treated animals developed tumors at multiple sites, leading sponsors to discontinue clinical development. The relevance of these findings to humans has not been resolved, but they are a major reason the compound is not approved. Current literature emphasizes uncertainty about long-term effects and the risks of unregulated use. Regulators and health agencies have not established a safe human exposure level.
Cardarine is a synthetic compound also known as GW501516, GW-501516, and sometimes endurobol. It was developed as a selective agonist of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, a nuclear receptor involved in fatty acid oxidation and energy metabolism. The compound was studied in preclinical models for metabolic and cardiovascular conditions, but it did not become a marketed human medicine. In regulatory and anti-doping contexts, it is treated as a prohibited substance rather than a licensed medicine.
The pharmacological interest in cardarine centers on PPARδ activation and its downstream effects on lipid handling and mitochondrial function. In animal studies, PPARδ agonists have been associated with changes in exercise endurance and fatty acid utilization, though results vary by model and protocol. Human data remain sparse, and the absence of large controlled trials limits conclusions about efficacy. Researchers often describe the compound as a tool for probing PPARδ biology rather than a proven therapeutic agent.
=== Pharmacokinetics === LC–MS is widely used in the field of bioanalysis and is specially involved in pharmacokinetic studies of pharmaceuticals. Pharmacokinetic studies are needed to determine how quickly a drug will be cleared from the body organs and the hepatic (liver) blood flow. MS analyzers are useful in these studies because of their shorter analysis time, and higher sensitivity and specificity compared to UV detectors commonly attached to HPLC systems. One major advantage is the use of tandem MS–MS, where the detector may be programmed to select certain ions to fragment. The measured quantity is the sum of molecule fragments chosen by the operator. As long as there are no interferences or ion suppression in LC–MS, the LC separation can be done quite swiftly.
=== Money laundering === Criminal networks often launder their money in Morocco, southern Spain, or Dubai. This illegal money often circulates through the Hawala system, a parallel banking system of Arab origin that is often used by organised crime syndicates. Interpol also mentioned that the Moroccan mafia has a major involvement in the synthetic drug market, particularly in the manufacturing of these drugs, as well as playing an important role in the trafficking of cannabis (hashish) from the Jbala region in Morocco. In Wouter Laumans' book on the Moroccan mafia, he cites that 80% of northern Morocco is built with illegal money that mostly originates from money laundering. Dutch investigator Pieter Tops made an astonishing discovery in September 2018: trafficking networks in the Netherlands easily collect up to €20 billion through the trade of synthetic drugs such as XTC or amphetamines. Tops warned the Belgian authorities that the traffickers have so much money re-invested in legal businesses, which seriously affects the communities and neighbourhoods from where these traffickers originate. As mayor of Antwerp, Bart De Wever asked for reinforcements to investigate the drug trade and the Moroccan mafia in the city, to intercept a maximum number of people who are involved in these drug trafficking businesses.
2011 Sir Alec John Jeffreys: Developed techniques for DNA fingerprinting and DNA profiling 2010 Pat Brown: Pioneering work in the development of microarrays, and the diverse applications of this technology in genetic research. 2009 Mathias Uhlén 2008 Ruedi Aebersold 2007 Donald F. Hunt 2006 Roger Tsien 2005 Stephen Fodor 2004 Edwin Southern 2003 Franz Hillenkamp and Michael Karas 2002 John Fenn 2001 Csaba Horvath 2000 Leroy Hood 1999 Marvin H. Caruthers for pioneering contributions to the chemical synthesis of DNA and RNA 1998 Bruce Merrifield 1997 Lloyd M. Smith 1996 David Lipman 1995 Klaus Biemann 1994 Frederick Sanger
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== January 6, 1982 (Wednesday) == Speaking at the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science at Washington, Dr. James Hansen, a climatologist for NASA's Goddard Institute of Space Studies warned that the increase of carbon dioxide and other chemicals (such as methane and nitrous oxide) in Earth's atmosphere would cause a substantial warming of the Earth's climate during the 1980s, sooner than predictions that global warming would not take place until the 21st century. Serial murderer William G. Bonin, a 34-year old truck driver charged with being the "Freeway Killer", was convicted on charges of torturing and murdering 10 young men and boys from May 1979 until his capture on June 12, 1980. He was acquitted of charges of killing two other victims. Initially, he had been linked by investigators to 21 homicides, and indicted for 12. Born: Eddie Redmayne, English stage and film actor, winner of the 2014 Academy Award for Best Actor for his portrayal of Stephen Hawking in The Theory of Everything; in Westminster, London Died: Shang Yue, 79, Chinese Marxist economic historian and fiction author who was purged in 1958 but rehabilitated in 1976 Bill Crawford, 68, American editorial cartoonist
== Risk factors == The increase in obesity in Brazil has been associated with multiple factors, including increased consumption of ultra-processed foods, reduced levels of physical activity, urbanisation and lifestyle changes, socioeconomic inequalities, increased sedentary behaviour, and changes in transportation and occupational patterns. Research has demonstrated associations between obesity and age, educational attainment, income, and regional disparities. Brazil's nutrition transition has been characterised by a gradual shift from traditional dietary patterns toward increased consumption of processed and ultra-processed foods.
== Diagnosis == Affected patients may have normal, low, or slightly elevated TSH depending on the spectrum and phase of illness. Total T4 and T3 levels may be altered by binding protein abnormalities, and medications. Reverse T3 levels are generally increased, while FT3 is decreased. FT4 levels may have a transient increase, before becoming subnormal during severe illness. Correspondingly, in the majority of cases calculated sum activity of peripheral deiodinases (SPINA-GD) is reduced. Generally the levels of free T3 will be lowered, followed by the lowering of free T4 in more severe disease. Several studies described elevated concentrations of 3,5-T2, an active thyroid hormone, in NTIS. 3,5-T2 levels were also observed to correlate with concentrations of rT3 (reverse T3) in patients with euthyroid sick syndrome. NTIS is a component of a complex endocrine adaptation process, so affected patients might also have hyperprolactinemia and elevated levels of corticosteroids (especially cortisol) and growth hormone. NTIS can be difficult to distinguish from other forms of thyroid dysfunction in the hospital setting. Both NTIS and primary hypothyroidism may have reduced fT3 and fT4, and elevated TSH (which is common in the hospital, during the recovery phase of NTIS). Prescribing thyroxine to treat this may lead to lifelong thyroid overtreatment. Hyperthyroidism may be assumed due to decreased TSH and a transient fT4 increase. In some cases, this can be distinguished from NTIS by a thyroid ultrasound, which is commonly available in the hospital intensive care unit.
== Research == Neural drug delivery is the next step beyond the basic addition of growth factors to nerve guidance conduits. Drug delivery systems allow the rate of growth factor release to be regulated over time, which is critical for creating an environment more closely representative of in vivo development environments.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The average 70 kg (150 lb) adult human body contains approximately 7×1027 atoms and contains at least detectable traces of 60 chemical elements. About 29 of these elements are thought to play an active positive role in life and health in humans. The relative amounts of each element vary by individual, mainly due to differences in the proportion of fat, muscle and bone in their body. Persons with more fat will have a higher proportion of carbon and a lower proportion of most other elements (the proportion of hydrogen will be about the same). The numbers in the table are averages of different numbers reported by different references. The adult human body averages ~53% water. This varies substantially by age, sex, and adiposity. In a large sample of adults of all ages and both sexes, the figure for water fraction by weight was found to be 48 ±6% for females and 58 ±8% water for males. Water is ~11% hydrogen by mass but ~67% hydrogen by atomic percent, and these numbers along with the complementary % numbers for oxygen in water, are the largest contributors to overall mass and atomic composition figures. Because of water content, the human body contains more oxygen by mass than any other element, but more hydrogen by atom-fraction than any other element.
=== Syndesmotic tear === The severity of acute syndesmosis injury is rated from grade I to III by several authors. A grade I injury is a partial anteroinferior tibiofibular ligament tear, meaning the exorotation and squeeze tests are negative for this grade. Grade II injury is a complete anteroinferior tibiofibular ligament and inferior interosseous ligament tear, meaning that squeeze test and exorotation are positive. This results in the injury being stabilized with immobilization but not operatively stabilized. A grade III injury is a complete anteroinferior tibiofibular ligament tear including a (partial) interosseous ligament tear and deltoid ligament avulsion, meaning the joint is unstable and positive on the exorotation and squeeze tests. This grade requires operative stabilization. If the syndesmosis is torn apart as result of bone fracture, surgeons will sometimes fix the relevant bones together with a syndesmotic screw, temporarily replacing the syndesmosis, or with a tightrope fixation, which is called syndesmosis procedure. The screw inhibits normal movement of the bones and, thereby, the corresponding joint(s). When the natural articulation is healed, the screw may be removed. The tightrope fixation with elastic fiberwire suture on the other hand allows physiologic motion of the ankle and may be permanent.
== Prognosis == Necrobiosis Lipoidica is classically chronic, difficult to manage, and treat. The prognosis is not reassuring. Squamous cell carcinoma is often a concern with NL. However, this occurs very late into the diagnosis Treatment can typically stop the growth of lesions and ulcers. Lesion treatment is often exquisitely painful and requires intensive wound care. Aesthetically, wounds rarely heal without scarring.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Rodent studies reported increased endurance and fat oxidation after GW501516 exposure. Long-term studies also found higher rates of some tumors, which led to halted development.
Small short-term human trials examined metabolic markers such as lipids and glucose. The trials did not continue after rodent cancer findings, so long-term human safety is unknown.
Controlled human trials have not established a performance benefit. Anecdotal reports exist, but they are not reliable evidence.
Legal status varies by country. It is not approved as a medicine, and it is prohibited in sport. Some jurisdictions restrict import, sale, or possession.